ECED 2340 Family Dynamics & Community Involvement Family Diversity Project: Topics: Cultures and Family Structures

The purpose of this article is three-fold. The first goal is to help attorneys and judges gain a greater understanding of scientific research by addressing problems in earlier studies. Attorneys will be better able to assess research as it may apply to individual fact patterns. Second, current trends in the research will be presented regarding the impact of divorce on children. Science-based conclusions about the impact of divorce on children have changed over time. Specifically, it is argued that it is not the divorce itself that causes significant emotional difficulties post-divorce, but five other factors that may be present concurrent with divorce. Third, recommendations for attorneys and judges will be provided, including changes in the legal process that may be used to decrease the negative impact of divorce and its aftermath.

A look at the research discussing divorce and its effect on children.

Divorce and its subsequent transitions can be stressful for children and therefore, affect their well-being in a negative manner. Effective parenting (with high support and high control) can, however, function as a protective factor. While previous studies have indicated that effective parenting does indeed improve children’s well-being after divorce, these studies tended to concentrate on maternal family structures and transitions as well as maternal parenting. With this study, we i investigate the mediating role of both maternal and paternal parenting between various family structures after divorce (including the custodial arrangement as well as the repartnering of both parents) and children’s well-being. Therefore, we analyzed 618 parent–child dyads from the multi-actor dataset ‘‘Divorce in Flanders—DiF’’ using a mediated structural equation model. Results revealed that both maternal and paternal parenting can mediate between family structure after divorce and children’s well-being. Depending on the type of post divorce family constellation, parenting can be considered as a risk or a protective factor, for both maternal and paternal parenting.

This article discusses collaborative divorce as an approach to assist children and parents with the transition to a new family structure.

his article reviews the literature on divorce as a risk factor in children's psychological development; describes common themes expressed by children presenting in treatment; and highlights the unique challenges for the child therapist working with a child of divorce, particularly those with high parental conflict and court involvement. Then, using a case example, the article describes therapeutic strategies and a treatment structure that, consistent with the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association (2010), focuses on developing and maintaining the therapeutic relationship to support the psychological growth of the child. Finally, the article discusses the ethical challenges inherent in providing therapeutic intervention for this type of child and the implications for this type of therapeutic approach.

The artricle analyzes the relationship between fathers and children after the parents' divorce, identifying the following conditions that influence their relationship: the child's age at the time of divorce, the behavior of the child and other relatives, the father's desire to participate in the child's life, the place of residence, and the father's career. Three stages of development in this relationship are identified, and the types of paternal behavior during and after the divorce are clarified. Special attention is focused on the child's socialization after the divorce and the implications of this for socialization in contemporary circumstances.

The family and its important role in the development of the child is the inspiration for many types of research that have the intention to emphasize certain aspects of family life and the consequences of the family relations in the development of the children. The issue of this research is to find out if there is a connection between the conflict in the family, the divorce of the parents and self-concept in the children of early school age. The research is conducted on 30 children of single-parent families. The children of these single-parent families are children who have lived in families with conflicts and they have been direct or indirect participants in the conflict of the divorced parents. In the process of research, we applied projective techniques: Machover which consists of drawing a person's figure, as well as a drawing a house and a tree-HTP (House-Tree-Person).The results are obtained through qualitative analysis and interpretation of each drawing particularly. During the investigation the relation between the variables, it is confirmed that there is a considerable connection between the conflict in the family, the divorce of the parents and the self-concept in children. It is confirmed, during the process that the children of divorced parents from negative self-concept. In children of single-parent families it is indicated that this group of children in relation to the psychological picture for themselves presented the following characteristics: lowered EGO, mechanisms for defense, feeling of insecurity, low self-confidence, aggressiveness, great virility, and caution.

Research regarding family adaption and resilience in children with chronic health conditions has resulted in the development of a number of theoretical models and data-driven psychosocial interventions in the field of pediatric psychology, some of which may not be well known in the field of family science. These models incorporate family systems theory and multiple resiliency factors within their framework to better describe the complex process of adaptation and subsequent adjustment outcomes. In this article, three contemporary resilience models within pediatric psychology are briefly reviewed and discussed. The development of a psychosocial intervention targeting uncertainty management for caregivers of children with cancer and the preliminary results are also presented as an exemplar of how such models may utilized to build interventions. Finally, the implications of the authors' findings and future research directions involving psychosocial interventions for families of children with chronic health conditions are discussed.

The efficacy and consequential validity of an ecological approach to behavioral intervention with families of children with developmental disabilities were examined. The approach aimed to transform coercive into constructive parent–child interaction in family routines. Ten families participated, including ten mothers and fathers and ten children 3–8 years old with developmental disabilities. Thirty-six family routines were selected (2–4 per family). Dependent measures included child problem behavior, routine steps completed, and coercive and constructive parent–child interaction. For each family, a single case, multiple baseline design was employed with three phases: baseline, intervention, and follow-up. Visual analysis evaluated the functional relation between intervention and improvements in child behavior and routine participation. Nonparametric tests across families evaluated the statistical significance of these improvements. Sequential analyses within families and univariate analyses across families examined changes from baseline to intervention in the percentage and odds ratio of coercive and constructive parent–child interaction. Multiple baseline results documented functional or basic effects for 8 of 10 families. Nonparametric tests showed these changes to be significant. Follow-up showed durability at 11–24 months postintervention. Sequential analyses documented the transformation of coercive into constructive processes for 9 of 10 families. Univariate analyses across families showed significant improvements in 2- and 4-step coercive and constructive processes but not in odds ratio. Results offer evidence of the efficacy of the approach and consequential validity of the ecological unit of analysis, parent–child interaction in family routines. Future studies should improve efficiency, and outcomes for families experiencing family systems challenges.

This study examined the longitudinal association between fathers’ early involvement in routine caregiving, literacy, play, and responsive caregiving activities at 9 months and maternal depressive symptoms at 4 years. Data for 3,550 children and their biological parents were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort data set. Analyses in a structural equation modeling framework examined whether the association between father involvement and maternal depressive symptoms differed for families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and for families of children with other disabilities or delays from families of children who were typically developing. Results indicated that father literacy and responsive caregiving involvement were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms for mothers of children with ASD. These findings indicate that greater father involvement may benefit families of children with ASD and highlight the need to support and encourage service providers to work with fathers.

Moving from family-centred to childcentred models of service delivery can be stressful for parents as their young children with developmental delays and disabilities transition into school. The purpose of this paper was to explore and compare predictors of both distress and well-being in parents during this transition period.

The aim of this research was to compare parental stress, coping strategies and social support perceived in families of children with low functioning autism (n= 8), high functioning autism (n= 10), Down syndrome (n= 12) and parents of typically developing children (n= 20). Specifically, the objective was to investigate which variables (coping strategies and perception of social support available) might better predict different stress outcomes in the four groups. Parents were asked to fill in three questionnaires: Parent Stress Index, Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced and Social Support Questionnaire. Significant differences among groups in all of the variables considered were found. These results suggest the advisability of fostering functional coping strategies and social support received in families of children with disabilities, and especially in those with children with low functioning autism.

Parenting of disabled children is a big challenge. Some parents may not take care of happiness and health of their disabled children while taking care of them. Disabled children need positive environment, extra care and affection that foster their physical, emotional and social growth. Often parents are not capable enough to fulfill their needs; hence they feel guilt, sorrow, denial and anger which results stress in family, and effects negatively to disabled children. A disabled child possesses low confidence level and suffers from adjustment related problems also and to this manifestation, the situation becomes very difficult for parents to nurture them properly and inculcate values. It seems plausible that motivation for disabled children may enhance their confidence level; whereas parent's balanced coping strategies may help them better nurture and improve the family life. Thus this paper emphasizes on two points; first, it tries to assess the mental situation of disabled children and parents and secondly it recommend that what should be the motivational pattern for disabled children and coping strategy for parents.

Participation in high quality early intervention programs is critical for eligible young children who experience atypical development for their future academic success. High quality programs promote access to services, incorporate instructional strategies that encourage children's participation, and advocate public policy that supports professional development and collaboration among families, early childhood educators, and early intervention providers. Although program implementation according to evidence-based practice is recognized as the key, little research currently exists documenting the implementation of evidence-based practices in early intervention programs. The primary goal of this mixed-methods study was to determine if families, early childhood educators, and early intervention service providers were knowledgeable about evidence-based practices for early intervention and if these practices were currently being implemented consistently throughout the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Families (n = 11), early childhood educators (n = 149), and early intervention providers (n = 66) completed online surveys, and 12 participants participated in semi-structured interviews to report their experiences. Early intervention providers reported a significantly higher perception than early childhood educators that early intervention services were implemented according to evidence-based practice. Early childhood educators were knowledgeable about evidence-based practices in early intervention, but they did not feel they were implemented in their programs. Study findings are discussed in the context of providing early childhood educators with recommendations for improving the quality of early intervention implementation for children with atypical development in their community preschools including access, participation, and policy support.

Same-sex marriage has received much scholarly attention in the United States in the past decade. Yet we know little about how same sex couples experience marriage. In this article, I present findings from in-depth interviews with 32 legally married gay men in Iowa. I focus on their experiences with families of origin and investigate the legitimating potential of same-sex marriage. The men had high expectations about the power of marriage to help them gain recognition and support, but their experiences with family members were more varied and complex than they expected. Although marriage often led to positive family outcomes, it also commonly had negative consequences, including new and renewed experiences of family rejection. This study complicates ideas about the legitimating potential of marriage for same-sex couples by illuminating both its power and limits in helping gay men gain status and support from their families of origin.

Little work has examined parenting stress in adoptive parents, particularly lesbian and gay adoptive parents. The current longitudinal study examined parent-reported child characteristics (measured postplacement) and parent and family characteristics (measured preplacement) as predictors of postplacementparenting stress and change in parenting stress across three time points during the first 2 years of adoptive parenthood, among 148 couples (50 lesbian, 40 gay, and 58 heterosexual) who were first-time parents. Children in the sample were, on average, 5.61 months (SD
10.26) when placed, and 2.49 years (SD
.85) at the 2 year postplacement follow-up. Findings revealed that parents who had been placed with older children and parents who perceived severe emotional/behavioral problems in their children reported more postplacement stress. In addition, parents who reported fewer depressive symptoms, more love for their partners, and more family and friend support during the preplacement period had less postplacement stress. Parenting stress decreased for parents who perceived severe emotional/behavioral problems in their children, but it increased somewhat for those who reported developmental problems in their children. Findings highlight vulnerabilities and resources that may shape adoptive parents’ experiences of stress in early parenthood, and have implications for both researchers and professionals who wish to support adoptive family adjustment.

Controversy continues to surround parenting by lesbian and gay (LG) adults and outcomes for their children. As sexual minority parents increasingly adopt children, longitudinal research about child development, parenting, and family relationships is crucial for informing such debates. In the psychological literature, family systems theory contends that children's healthy development depends upon healthy family functioning more so than family structure. From the framework of family stress theory, it was expected that longitudinal outcomes for school-age children adopted in infancy could be distinct among those with same-sex versus other-sex parents (N = 96 families). Similar findings were hypothesized in terms of parent adjustment, couple relationships, and family functioning in comparing same-sex and other-sex parent families. Results indicated that adjustment among children, parents, and couples, as well as family functioning, were not different on the basis of parental sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, or heterosexual) when children were school-age. Rather, children's behavior problems and family functioning during middle childhood were predicted by earlier child adjustment issues and parenting stress. These findings are consistent with and extend previous literature about families headed by LG parents, particularly those that have adopted children. The results have implications for advancing supportive policies, practices, and laws related to adoption and parenting by sexual minority adults.

Limited research exists about the unique experiences and possible marginalization of children with sexual minority parents. From a larger longitudinal project of diverse adoptive families, we examined cross-sectional data using mixed methods from interviews with 49 adopted children ( M = 8 years; 47 % female) in 27 two-father and 22 two-mother families. Using thematic analysis, we coded themes of awareness of difference, microaggressions, and resilience (i.e., coping and positive family conceptualizations). Children experienced 'feeling different' and microaggressions from peers, but generally at a low to medium intensity and with neutral (not negative) emotion. More instances of resilience and positive family conceptualizations were reported than microaggressions or feelings of difference, suggesting that children develop positive perceptions of their family and navigate experiences of difference with resilience. Filling important gaps in the literature, we discuss implications of our results for practice and policy.

In this study, we examined associations between qualities of families' social contexts and experiences of coparenting. In a sample of 92 adoptive families, we assessed perceived social support among 23 lesbian, 28 gay, and 41 heterosexual adoptive parent families and its association with parents' perceptions of their coparenting alliances. Results showed that parents in same- and other-sex couples reported receiving similar amounts of social support from family, friends, and significant others. Perceived social support was positively associated with stronger coparenting alliance among all family types. Perceived support from family members explained more variance in parenting alliance than did support from friends or significant others. These findings add to knowledge about fundamental family processes and enhance understanding of parenthood among lesbian and gay adoptive couples.

Little research has explored same-gender couples' experiences of relationship dissolution, and no research has explored relationship dissolution in same-gender adoptive parents. Drawing from feminist and social constructionist perspectives, the current qualitative study examined the perspectives of 13 adoptive mothers (seven lesbian, six heterosexual) who had separated from their partners over the course of a longitudinal study on adoptive families. Participants were interviewed via telephone and represented a geographically diverse sample of mothers in the U.S. Becoming a parent (to a high-needs child in particular), differences in parenting style, parent problems (e.g., substance abuse), and infidelity were perceived as contributing to relationship dissolution by all types of participants. Lesbian mothers were especially likely to emphasize problems with emotional and sexual intimacy, and inequities in the division of labor, as contributors. Lesbian mothers were more likely to describe shared custody arrangements than heterosexual mothers, who were typically the primary residential parents. Participants described both practical challenges (e.g., financial insecurity) and emotional challenges (e.g., feelings of guilt, especially in light of the child's history of loss) in the wake of relationship dissolution. However, participants also identified positive changes that had occurred post-dissolution, including personal growth and improved co-parenting, with the latter being noted by lesbians in particular. Findings have implications for professionals wishing to support diverse families during key life transitions, such as parental relationship dissolution.

Public debate on same-sex marriage often focuses on the disadvantages that children raised by same-sex couples may face. On one hand, little evidence suggests any difference in the outcomes of children raised by same-sex parents and different-sex parents. On the other hand, most studies are limited by problems of sample selection and size, and few directly measure the parenting practices thought to influence child development. This research note demonstrates how the 2003-2013 American Time Use Survey ( n = 44,188) may help to address these limitations. Two-tier Cragg's Tobit alternative models estimated the amount of time that parents in different-sex and same-sex couples engaged in child-focused time. Women in same-sex couples were more likely than either women or men in different-sex couples to spend such time with children. Overall, women (regardless of the gender of their partners) and men coupled with other men spent significantly more time with children than men coupled with women, conditional on spending any child-focused time. These results support prior research that different-sex couples do not invest in children at appreciably different levels than same-sex couples. We highlight the potential for existing nationally representative data sets to provide preliminary insights into the developmental experiences of children in nontraditional families.

Despite the increasing prevalence of 3-generation family households (grandparent, parent, child), relatively little research has studied these households during early childhood. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Birth Cohort (N 6,550), this study investigated the associations between 3-generation coresidence in early childhood and school readiness, and how the associations differed by maternal age, race/ethnicity, nativity, relationship status, and poverty. For the full sample of children, no associations between 3-generation coresidence and school readiness were found. Analyses by demographic characteristics found that race/ethnicity and nativity moderated the associations, whereas maternal age, relationship status, and poverty did not. The study found that 3-generation coresidence was associated with lower levels of expressive language for White, Asian, and Black children but more expressive language for Hispanic children. Coresidence was also associated with more externalizing behavior for White and American Indian/Alaskan Native children but less externalizing behavior for Hispanic and Black children. Analyses by maternal nativity found that for children of immigrant mothers, 3-generation coresidence was associated with more expressive language and less externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Interactions between race/ethnicity and nativity found that the positive associations for Hispanic children were concentrated among children of immigrant parents. No differences were found between grandmother-only and grandmother/grandfather 3-generation family households. Overall, the findings suggest there may be heterogeneity by race/ethnicity and nativity in the associations between 3-generation coresidence and school readiness.

Aim: Participation in social, leisure, and instrumental activities is associated with better physical and mental health in later life; however, unlike other older adults, grandparents raising grandchildren may replace previously enjoyed activities with child-rearing responsibilities. In light of poor health status among custodial grandparents, this paper focuses on the way raising a child influences grandparent engagement in occupation and perceptions of health and well-being. Methods: Ten grandparents age 60 and older responded to the SF-36v2 Health Survey, Activity Card Sort, demographic questionnaire, and interview. Data were analyzed for descriptive statistics and comparison to national norms, and a descriptive qualitative method of coding was followed to identify themes. Results: Grandfathers retained an appreciably higher level of activity involvement than grandmothers; most notably for social activities. Four grandmothers identified that raising a grandchild had a negative impact on their physical and emotional well-being. Conclusion: Occupational therapists can support grandparents’ re-establishment of leisure, social, and more demanding physical activity to avert functional decline.

The aim of the current study was to explore the relationship between the psychological health of grandparents raising grandchildren, and those grandchildren’s social, emotional and behavioral issues. The study also assessed the relationship between psychological well-being in grandparents and access to informal social support. The sample comprised 100 grandparents who were raising grandchildren. Regression analyses revealed that grandparents caring for grandchildren with abnormal emotional and hyperactive symptoms scored higher on measures of anxiety, stress, and depression, and were more likely to report less life satisfaction. Grandparents with greater access to informal support experienced less depression, although greater access to informal social support did not lessen the impact of raising grandchildren with social, emotional, or behavioral issues. Implications for intervention and policy are discussed.

Grandparents raising grandchildren and schools where these children are in attendance share concerns about the academic performance of these grandchildren. Yet, schools and grandparents raising grandchildren often encounter conflicts in communication that limit their ability to work effectively to support students in grandparent-headed families. Open house events are rarely discussed in the research literature on grandparents raising grandchildren as a tool to engage grandparents raising grandchildren. Given that schools typically host open house events for school-age children and their families, an opportunity exists at open houses for schools and grandparents raising grandchildren to connect and to work on improving communication and support. This article describes the context of grandparent caregiving, academic-related issues faced by students in grandparent-headed families, and the open house as a tool for fostering relationships between grandparents and schools. The author also discusses the role of the school social worker and offers strategies to help school personnel make meaningful connections with grandfamilies during an open house event.

The article offers information on We're Grandparents with Resources, Access, Nurturing, and Direction (GRAND), a social research design and development pilot project to address the needs and strengths of grandparents who raise their grandchildren. It mentions that the phases of the project include needs assessment, implementation and design of psychoeducational group, and evaluation of the impact of the programme

Using data from the Year 9 Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study ( N ∼ 3,182), we investigated the characteristics grandfamilies (grandparents raising their grandchildren with no parent present, N = 84) and compared them to other key groups, including children's nonresident parents and other economically disadvantaged families with children. Results show that grandparents raising their grandchildren were generally better off in terms of educational attainment, marital status, and economic well-being than the child's parents. Grandparents raising their grandchildren also had characteristics very similar to other disadvantaged mothers. Academic and socioemotional well-being were poorer among children in grandfamilies compared with those living with their mothers, but parenting practices were very similar. These findings suggest that although children in grandfamilies may be at a disadvantage academically and socioemotionally, grandparent caregivers are in many ways similar to other fragile-family mothers. Overall, this study enhances our knowledge of an important yet understudied family type.

This paper examines the mediating effect of child–grandparent conflict on the relationship between child trauma exposure and grandparenting stress.

Caring for a child with a disability can be a unique and challenging experience, with families often relying on informal networks for support. Often, grandparents are key support resources, yet little is known about their roles and experiences. Reporting on data collected in a larger Australian study, this article explores grandparents’ experiences of caring for a child with a disability and the impact on their family relationships and quality of life.

Objective. The purpose of this article is to examine whether and how the residential racial diversity of transracially adopted children (i.e., nonwhite children adopted by white parents) varies from those of biological children in white monoracial families and biological children in mixed-race families.

The phenotypic differences between children and their adoptive parents in transracial adoptions make the child’s adoptive status readily apparent in public. Consequently, adoptees field more frequent questions and comments about the adoption. The present study examines the nature of public conversations about ethnicity and adoption of 41 elementary school age girls adopted from China and the ecological factors related to less frequent occurrences of such conversations and to the positive nature of these experiences. Results indicate that family structure (single parent vs. two parents) and parental bicultural competence predict membership in the favorable condition (reporting fewer public interaction experiences and reporting more positive experiences, respectively). Child’s age and racial diversity of the town of residence do not predict these outcomes. Implications for families, adoption professionals, teachers and researchers are discussed.

This study illustrates the types of multiracial microaggressions, or subtle forms of discrimination toward multiracial people, that transpire in family settings. Utilizing a Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) Method and a Qualitative Secondary Analysis (QSA), multiracial participants (N = 9) were interviewed in three focus groups to describe the types of microaggressions they encounter in their families. Five domains emerged including (a) isolation within the family, (b) favoritism within the family, (c) questioning of authenticity, (d) denial of multiracial identity and experiences by monoracial family members, and (e) feelings about not learning about family heritage or culture. We discuss how encouraging discussions of race and ethnicity in multiracial families is conducive to promoting healthier identities and well-being for multiracial people.

Despite the recent growth in multiracial children among American children, we know very little about their well-being. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class (N = 17,706), we evaluated the likelihood of living in poverty and near poverty for multiracial and monoracial children. Most multiracial groups have poverty or near poverty rates that are in between Whites and their respective minority monoracial counterparts, with Asian-Whites reporting a risk of poverty equivalent to Whites and Black-Hispanics reporting risks as high as Black and Hispanic children. Family structure and educational and occupational attainment characteristics explain some or all of the White/non-White differentials in poverty for multiracial groups, even as monoracial children still exhibit higher risk than Whites. We consider these patterns’ implications for practitioners working with lowincome families.

An introduction is presented in which the editors discuss several topics appearing elsewhere in the issue, including information on multiethnic families in the U.S., racial socialization and multiracial adolescents, and research on the well-being of monoracial kindergarten children.

Lou Jing was born in Shanghai to a Chinese mother and an African American father. She never met her father as he left China before she was born, and so was brought up by her mother in a single-parent family. In 2009, Lou Jing entered the Shanghai Dragon TV’s talent showGo Oriental Angel!Lou’s skin colour engendered heated debates among netizens, which became polarized between comments of support and racist slurs against Lou and her mother. This study reveals how mixed heritage subverts the overlapping boundaries of gender, race and Chinese ethnicity, and online debates demonstrate the persistent influences of historical discourses and contemporary context in a rapidly globalizing China. The blogosphere has provided a forum for heated discussions of biopolitics, in which Chinese ethnic identity is continuously contested.

he purpose of the current study is to test a recently established model of racial-ethnic socialization (Langrehr, 2014) among 2 samples of White transracially adoptive parents and to assess whether the proposed model functions similarly after accounting for adopted child race.Method: Based on a modified version of the Racial Bias Preparation Scale (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000), confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the 3-factor model (i.e., Prejudice Awareness, Racial-Ethnic Pride, and Egalitarianism) among 172 White transracially adoptive parents with Asian children (Mage = 45.72) and 140 White transracially adoptive parents with Black children (Mage = 42.62). In addition, multigroup invariance testing was used to assess whether the proposed model functioned similarly across the 2 groups of parents.Results: Results indicate that the proposed 3-factor model demonstrated partial measurement invariance such that the subconstruct of Egalitarianism functioned similarly across groups, whereas Racial-Ethnic Pride and Prejudice Awareness were deemed noninvariant.Conclusions: Findings are intended to help expand the concept of racial-ethnic socialization for transracially adoptive families and address the degree to which current research on racial-ethnic socialization can be applied to different transracially adoptive families. Results are intended to highlight ways that various social-cultural dimensions of family can culminate into different socialization experiences.

Research on the relationship between parental incarceration and foster care
placement is limited in three ways: (1) it focuses solely on maternal imprisonment
and provides neither (2) strong causal tests nor (3) tests of mediation. In this article, we address these gaps by providing a rationale for how paternal imprisonmentmay increase children’s risk of foster care placement and by using Danish registry data to conduct a strong causal test of this relationship (using a recent policy change) and to test relevant mechanisms. The results provide compelling evidence of a causal effect of paternal imprisonment on children’s risk of foster care placement in Denmark and imply that changes in family finances and family structure do little to explain these effects.

The article focuses on providing services to incarcerated parents in the U.S. Topics discussed include analysis of family ties, visitation, and parent-child programs; prisoners relationships with their children and other family members; and an account of California Prisoner-Mother Program which provides that pregnant women and mothers of young children could live in community housing with their children up to age six.

High rates of incarceration in the United States have motivated a broad examination of the effects of parental incarceration on child well-being. Although a growing literature documents challenges facing the children of incarcerated men, most incarcerated fathers lived apart from their children before their arrest, raising questions of whether they were sufficiently involved with their families for their incarceration to affect their children. The author used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,071) to examine father–child contact among incarcerated fathers and found that most incarcerated fathers maintained a degree of contact with their children through either coresidence or visitation. Moreover, the results revealed robust reductions in both father–child coresidence and visitation when fathers are incarcerated—between 18% and 20% for coresidence and 30% to 50% for the probability of visitation. The findings suggest that these reductions are driven by both incapacitation while incarcerated and union dissolution upon release.

The current study aimed to describe the prevalence of children of incarcerated parents (COIP) in a sample of homeless/highly mobile children, examine the relationship between parental incarceration and other risk factors, and investigate the effect of parental incarceration on child academic and mental health outcomes. The authors compared COIP (n=45) to children whose parents were never incarcerated (n=93) within a sample of 138, 4- to 7-year-old ethnically diverse children residing in emergency homeless shelters. Children’s caregivers provided information about children’s history of parental incarceration and other family experiences. Children’s teachers reported academic and mental health outcomes in the subsequent school year. Compared to children with no history of parental incarceration, COIP experienced more negative life events. Regression models revealed that a history of parental incarceration was a significant predictor of teacher-reported internalizing problems. These results have implications for the identification and treatment of the highest risk homeless/highly mobile children.

Mounting evidence links paternal incarceration to harmful outcomes for the children of incarcerated fathers. These findings hold across a host of important behavioral, developmental, and attainment outcomes, including mental health and behavioral problems, substance use, educational attainment, and social inequality. The process by which paternal incarceration causes poor outcomes is much less clear, however. Declines in quality parenting by the partners of former inmates represent one important domain where theory would suggest important effects but where the research evidence lags far behind. This Article analyzes the effects of paternal incarceration on parenting quality and finds that paternal incarceration has no effect on positive parenting behaviors but significantly increases problematic parenting behaviors, including negative conflict resolution tactics and physical abuse. The implications of the results for childhood well-being and development are also discussed.

Parental incarceration is often an adverse childhood experience that has been characterized as an enduring trauma that involves ongoing and repeated stressors. In this study we focus on the role of parental incarceration in predicting child trauma symptomology as well as key mediating family processes such as visitation and children's caregiving arrangement. We utilize a comparison group design of single caregiver and child dyads (N = 45) among similarly disadvantaged single caregiver families to first determine mean differences in child trauma symptomology. Findings revealed that both child and caregiver reports of child trauma symptomology were significantly higher in single caregiver families impacted by parental incarceration and these levels were in the clinical range (parent reports) or approached the clinical range (child reports). We then tested a mediational model examining family processes linked to child trauma symptomology. Parental incarceration was associated with more serious visitation problems (than other contexts of visitation to a nonresident parent) and children being raised by someone other than a biological parent. Parental incarceration also significantly predicted parent and child reports of child trauma symptoms. The effect of parental incarceration on parent reports of child trauma symptomology was fully mediated by the quality of children's visitation suggesting the importance of developing interventions aimed at alleviating child distress during visits in correctional settings.

Using data on 67,558 children (age 0 to 17) from the 1999 and 2002 rounds of the National Survey of America’s Families, the association between complex living arrangements and children’s health is examined. The authors consider children residing in a wide range of living arrangements, including with stepparents, single fathers, custodial grandparents, and nonkin foster parents. Findings suggest that children’s health varies by family structure. The authors find a key role for living with a biological father when predicting children’s health. Children living with a single father are less likely to have poor health outcomes than most other groups, whereas those with a stepfather have reduced health outcomes. The same is not true for those living with a single mother or stepmother. Children being raised by a grandparent and those in foster care have particularly poor health outcomes. Mediation analysis suggests income and health insurance status do not explain these relationships.

Recent evidences suggest that children from single parent families do less well on average than children who live with both the parent. They perform poor in school, obtain fewer years of education and have trouble keeping a steady job as young adults. Current evidence suggests that the loss of contact with parents, economic difficulties, stress, parent adjustment and competence and inter-parental conflict all contribute some degree of difficulties to children and result is in low psychological well-being. Thus the aim of the present study is to find out the association between parenting style and psychological well-being of children of single parent family. For this purpose the sample of 100 (50 children of single parent due to divorce and 50 children of single parent due to death) was taken from the Delhi city. War's (1978) psychological well-being scale and parenting scale of Bharadwaj, Sharma and Garg were used in order to measure psychological well being and parenting style respectively. The significance of difference between two means described that there is not any difference between children of single parent(divorce) and children of single parent(death) on the variables psychological well being and parenting style. The result revealed that parenting style is positively and significantly related with psychological well-being of the children of divorced family as well as children from the single parent due to death. Similar result was obtained for all the styles of the parenting. Thus on the basis of the result it can be said that children having a strong feeling of acceptance, protection, involvement, care and attention from their parents, showed a higher sense of positive orientation towards life therefore high psychological well-being is in result.

Research has established a negative association between single motherhood and child social-emotional development. This study examines whether Child Development Accounts, an economic intervention that encourages families to accumulate assets for children’s long-term development, buffer the association between single motherhood and child well-being and reduce social-emotional development disparities between children of unmarried and married mothers. The study analyzes data from a policy experiment of Child Development Accounts in Oklahoma, USA, which randomly selected a group of Oklahoma infants born in 2007 and randomly assigned their mothers to the treatment or control group. The intervention provides to the treatment group a Child Development Account built on the existing Oklahoma 529 College Savings Plan with additional financial incentives and information. The analytic sample includes 1,072 children in the treatment group and 1,049 in the control group. Children’s social-emotional development is measured by mothers’ reports of a shortened version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire in the 2011 follow-up survey when these children were about age 4. Findings suggest that Child Development Accounts have significantly positive effects on social-emotional development for children living with unmarried mothers and eliminate the disparity in socialemotional development between the children of single mothers and those of married mothers. The study considers the implications of using such asset-building initiatives to improve child development.

This study investigated conditions under which family structure matters most for child well-being. Using data from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (n = 3,936), a national sample of U.S. families, it was estimated how changes in family structure related to changes in children’s behavior between age 3 and 12 separately by household income level to determine whether associations depended on families’ resources. Early changes in family structure, particularly from a two-biological-parent to single-parent family, predicted increases in behavior problems more than later changes, and movements into single and stepparent families mattered more for children of higher versus lower income parents. Results suggest that for children of higher income parents, moving into a stepfamily may improve, not undermine, behavior.

A group of 30 children from single parent families were compared to 30 children from intact families to see whether the former would show any difference with the later in terms of General Well being, and Level of Aggression particularly taking the tribal population of Tripura state into consideration. The present study attempts to synthesize and evaluate the mere presence of both the parents which might play an effective role in the development of General Well Being. Standardized Psychological Tests (Questionnaires) were administered following standard procedures given by the respective test devices. Results showed that as expected the children belonging to single parent families differ significantly in terms of their General Well being, and Level of Aggression when compared to the children from the intact families. And the children from the single parent families are having a very higher level of aggression which may contribute to their poor level of general wellbeing.

The phenomenon of absent fathers is a common occurrence in today's homes that appears to be escalating, especially in Black households across the United States. The purpose of this study was to describe the lived experiences of successful Black men who were raised in absent-father homes as well as the lived experiences of their resilient single mothers. The authors share themes that captured the participants' experiences and provide recommendations for community counselors, school counselors, and counselor educators.

Violence is one of the most prevalent elements in the lives of homeless families with young children. This violence may come in various forms: domestic violence, street violence, violence in one’s childhood, witnessing violence, and other avenues and modes. Violence disrupts the normal bonding between parent and child. It isolates and degrades families. Early childhood professionals can support parents and children who are victims of violence through support, education, and nurturance.

Although research has documented the majority of homelessness experienced by individuals and families in the US to be transitional rather than chronic, the mechanisms by which some families successfully escape homelessness while other do not remains relatively unclear. To provide more information to this area of inquiry, this study analyzed the transitional nature of homelessness for a sample of families with school-aged children who were homeless under the McKinney-Vento definition. By conducting a survey with over 1000 homeless families with children enrolled in two public school systems in Central Florida, we find that over a quarter of families exit homelessness in less than six months. We compare these families to those that remained homeless to examine the potential importance of demographic differences and other potential barriers to securing housing. Many of the commonly assumed barriers were not significant predictors of continued homelessness; the most salient difference between the groups was income underscoring the importance of employment opportunities for families to allow them to exit homelessness.

The social interaction learning framework was used to explore whether positive parenting practices (noncoercive discipline, clear expectations, and praise and incentives) mitigated any effects of parent mental health (psychological distress and parenting stress) on child externalizing behaviors in a predominantly African American sample of homeless parents residing in transitional housing (N = 52, 79.6% female). The results showed that the positive relationship between psychological distress and child behavior was attenuated when parents provided high levels of praise and incentives. In addition, a positive relationship between parenting stress and child behavior existed only when parents transmitted low levels of praise and incentives. No significant findings existed for noncoercive discipline and clear expectations. The results suggest the need to further understand the positive aspects of parenting in the context of homelessness that can promote child adjustment even if parental mental health is compromised

How families overcome homelessness receives much less research attention than risk factors for becoming homeless. Qualitative focus groups with 14 formerly homeless women were held in diverse neighborhoods in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Grounded in an ecological approach and employing a hermeneutic research design, this study includes their perspectives regarding factors that facilitated successful rehousing. The method was also trauma informed, and specific recommendations for research with this population are offered. The results are divided into two sections. The first identifies factors associated with successfully transitioning out of homelessness. These included perceived benefits of overcoming homelessness, connecting to social services, and the seemingly randomness of stabilization. Second, participants’ recommendations for supporting homeless families are offered. These included the removal of common barriers to housing by addressing poor credit and criminal records; reforming payee systems; providing mediated peer-mentoring programs; ensuring equitable access to emergency shelter for women who become homeless but are not in another risk category (e.g., addiction); offering supportive services in community agency settings; and ensuring that schools are better prepared to assist homeless families. These women also expressed a desire to participate in the broader political realm to have a greater say about the institutions that impact their lives.

In this article, I draw on data from my qualitative dissertation study of the literacy practices of five families who resided in a homeless shelter to complicate the relationship between literacy, education, and inequality. Homelessness is examined through the lens of sponsorship to understand the differential access the families have to powerful sponsors of literacy and how schools and the marketplace may dismiss existing literacies that families use in their everyday lives. Their assimilation narratives reveal that the parents believed strongly in the promise of education to change the life trajectory of their children. Parents engaged in literacy for social and cultural purposes as well as middle class literacy practices that are valued in schools. Despite these attempts to assimilate, the parents and the children in the study did not benefit in significant ways and continually struggled against and resisted deficit perspectives surrounding homelessness and the inner city neighborhoods from which they came. The wide gulf between the official
portrait of homelessness, largely defined by statistics and influenced by deficit perspectives, and the counterportraits that illustrate the lived realities of the families suggests educational reform must address the larger context of inequality in the United States.

This study examined associations among family-level risks, emotional climate, and child adjustment in families experiencing homelessness. Emotional climate, an indirect aspect of emotion socialization, was indexed by parents’ expressed emotion while describing their children. Sociodemographic risk and parent internalizing distress were hypothesized to predict more negativity and less warmth in the emotional climate. Emotional climate was expected to predict observer-rated child affect and teacher-reported socioemotional adjustment, mediating effects of risk. Participants were 138 homeless parents (64 percent African-American) and their four- to six year-old children (43.5 percent male). During semi-structured interviews, parents reported demographic risks and internalizing distress and completed a Five Minute Speech Sample about their child, later rated for warmth and negativity. Children’s positive and negative affect were coded from videotapes of structured parent-child interaction tasks. Socioemotional adjustment (externalizing behavior, peer acceptance, and prosocial behavior) was reported by teachers a few months later. Hypotheses were partially supported. Parent internalizing distress was associated with higher parent negativity, which was linked to more negative affect in children, and parent warmth was associated with children’s positive affect. Neither emotional climate nor child affect predicted teacher-reported externalizing behavior or peer acceptance, but parental negativity and male sex predicted lower prosocial behavior in the classroom. Future research directions and clinical implications are discussed.

This study provides robust evidence that maternal mental illness places families with young children at risk for homelessness, contributes to the scant literature elucidating directional and causal links between mental illness and homelessness, and contributes to a stagnant but important literature on family homelessness.

Research has neglected the potential role of perceived parental control as a moderator between stressful life events (SLEs) and child-internalizing symptoms. Using secondary data from the Early Risers "Skills for Success" Program (August, Realmuto, Hektner, & Bloomquist, 2001), this study examined the impact of perceived parental control on the association between SLEs and child internalizing symptoms in formerly homeless families. The sample consisted of 137 families with 223 children between 4 and 12 years of age (M = 8.1, SD = 2.3) living in supportive housing sites in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Participants completed measures assessing the number of SLEs experienced (e.g., unemployment of parent, death of loved one, serious illness, homelessness), perceived parental control, and child-internalizing symptoms. In this sample, 65% of children (n = 144) experienced at least 1 SLE with an average experience of 2 SLEs (M = 2.0, SD = 1.9, range = 0-7). A regression analysis found that experiencing more SLEs and a perceived absence of parental control over child behavior were positively associated with child-internalizing symptoms. A significant interaction between SLEs and perceived absence of parental control over child behavior in predicting child internalizing symptoms was also found. These findings suggest that children of parents who model appropriate control are more likely to experience fewer internalizing symptoms in response to SLEs.

This study explored the impact of multiple deployments on the health and well-being of the partners(married or de facto) and children of Australian military personnel who have deployed frequently. Permission to contact military partners was sought from a sample of Australian Defence Force (ADF) members. Partners provided data on deployment history, physical health, mental health, and their children’s emotions, and behaviors. Associations between multiple deployments and health and well-being of partners and children were assessed using logistic regression. Data were collected from 1,332 Australian Defence Force partners (response rate 36%) with 1,095 children aged between 4 and 17 years. Almost half (47%) of partners had experienced more than one deployment, mainly to Timor-Leste, Iraq, and Afghanistan. There was little evidence of associations between numbers of deployments and the health of the partner. In contrast, more behavioral problems were reported for children who experienced two or more deployments with odds ratios generally greater than 2 and significant trends with increasing numbers of deployment. Although military families who experience multiple deployments may, by selection, be more resilient than those who have fewer deployments, these results suggest that adverse impacts on the children may accrue with increasing parental absences because of deployment.

Little is known about the family-related stress and postdeployment adjustment of single versus partnered parents deployed in support of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. This study examined exposure to family-related stressors during and after deployment, as well as postdeployment psychological symptoms in a national sample of 318 single (n 74) and partnered (n 244) parent veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Results demonstrated that single parents experienced higher levels of concern about life and family disruptions during deployment, lower levels of social support during and after deployment, and poorer postdeployment family functioning than partnered parents. Single parents also reported higher posttraumatic stress symptom severity, but not depression or anxiety symptom severity, compared with partnered parents. Family-related stressors demonstrated different associations with mental health for single and partnered parents, suggesting that some stressor– symptom relations may be more salient for single parents, and others may be more salient for partnered parents. Findings suggest that the deployment and postdeployment experiences of parents differ based on their partnered status, which has implications for the design and provision of services to single and partnered parents.

Over the past decade, studies into the impact of wartime deployment and related adversities on service members and their families have offered empirical support for systemic models of family functioning and a more nuanced understanding of the mechanisms by which stress and trauma reverberate across family and partner relationships. They have also advanced our understanding of the ways in which families may contribute to the resilience of children and parents contending with the stressors of serial deployments and parental physical and psychological injuries. This study is the latest in a series designed to further clarify the systemic functioning of military families and to explicate the role of resilient family processes in reducing symptoms of distress and poor adaptation among family members. Drawing upon the implementation of the Families Overcoming Under Stress (FOCUS) Family Resilience Program at 14 active-duty military installations across the United States, structural equation modeling was conducted with data from 434 marine and navy activeduty families who participated in the FOCUS program. The goal was to better understand the ways in which parental distress reverberates across military family systems and, through longitudinal path analytic modeling, determine the pathways of program impact on parental distress. The findings indicated significant cross-influence of distress between the military and civilian parents within families, families with more distressed military parents were more likely to sustain participation in the program, and reductions in distress among both military and civilian parents were significantly mediated by improvements in resilient
family processes. These results are consistent with family systemic and resilient models that support preventive interventions designed to enhance family resilient processes as an important part of comprehensive services for distressed military families.

Objective: The aim of this study was to describe deployed National Guard members’ and their families’perceptions of their experience with family reintegration, and the causes and conditions of challenges reintegration presents after deployment. Methods: A total of 26 National Guard members and 19 family members participated in individual (n = 22), couples (n = 6), or focus group (n = 17) interviews. In-depth interviews were used to assess needs and maximize input from military families regarding deployment-related experiences and reintegration issues. Qualitative coding and analysis of data were completed using NVivo. Results: Finding their way back in is the key process that the military members must complete to successfully reestablish their desired social connections with the family and reclaim their place within the family. Several conditions shape the degree of challenges with reintegration that veterans and their family will encounter. These include preparation for deployment, length and type of deployment, communication during deployment, and finally, awareness of how deployment changes the military member and the family. Conclusion: Support resources dedicated to providing National Guard members and their families with assistance in preparing for deployments and educating them about the importance of communication during deployment should be maintained and expanded. Broader educational efforts that increase awareness of what to expect regarding how deployment changes the military member and the family are needed.

Since 9/11, military service in the United States has been characterized by wartime deployments and reintegration challenges that contribute to a context of stress for military families. Research indicates the negative impact of wartime deployment on the well being of service members, military spouses, and children. Yet, few studies have considered how parental deployments may affect adjustment in young children and their families. Using deployment records and parent-reported measures from primary caregiving (N = 680) and military (n = 310) parents, we examined the influence of deployment on adjustment in military families with children ages 0–10 years. Greater deployment exposure was related to impaired family functioning and marital instability. Parental depressive and post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with impairments in social emotional adjustment in young children, increased anxiety in early childhood, and adjustment problems in school-age children. Conversely, parental sensitivity was associated with improved social and emotional outcomes across childhood.

Using survey data from 292 mothers married to members of the U.S. military, the authors examined relations among military deployment factors, quality of maternal care, and child attachment behavior with the mother. The results revealed that maternal perceptions of quality of care, mothers' depressive symptoms, and fathers' involvement when not deployed were significantly associated with children's attachment behavior. In addition, fathers' combat exposure was negatively associated with children's attachment behavior. Mothers' quality of care partially mediated the association between fathers' involvement and children's attachment behavior as well as the association between mothers' depressive symptoms and children's attachment behavior. A notable finding of this study was that deployment-related factors were both directly and indirectly related to children's attachment.

he risk for mental health problems and relational difficulties in military service members, spouses, and children is well-established. Yet, few services are available for families, particularly during the formative preschool years, when healthy parent-child relationships are crucial to the attainment of major socio-emotional milestones that form the foundation for later development. This paper describes the adaptation of a previously established military and trauma-informed preventive intervention, Families OverComing Under Stress (FOCUS) for use with families with a preschool-aged child (FOCUS for Early Childhood; FOCUS-EC). Grounded in theory and research on family resilience, FOCUS-EC aims to support parents as leaders of the family by providing developmental guidance and psychoeducation on deployment and reintegration, facilitate the construction of a family narrative, and enhance parenting strategies and the parent-child relationship. Furthermore, FOCUS-EC was adapted for use in a telehealth platform, enabling clinicians to reach military and veteran families in their homes, which is particularly useful for high-risk civilian-dwelling military families (including Reserve and National Guard). Pilot work and ongoing data collection as part of a randomized control trial suggest that FOCUS-EC is acceptable and feasible for military and veteran families with preschoolers.

Family dynamics and the individual differences of each family member can impact their stress. For families in the military, stress occurs regularly due to factors such a reassignments, deployments, and the frequency of changes. For some families, the stress that occurs over time helps family members to develop resiliency. Learning to cope with stress can teach skills in adapting to stressful lifestyle factors (e.g., mobility and relocation). Members of many military families develop these skills, while other families need a strong supportive network to facilitate their adjustment to military lifestyle stress. This is a review of the literature on the issues of how families and their children cope with and adapt to the stress of the military lifestyle. Suggestion are given for how families and school can work together to support children in military families to adapt to the military lifestyle. These suggestions can be applied to other types of transient families.

This paper examines differences in life satisfaction among children in different family structuresin 36 western, industrialised countries (n = 184 496). Children living with both biological parents reported higher levels of life satisfaction than children living with a single parent or parent–step-parent. Children in joint physical custody reported significantly higher levels of life satisfaction than their counterparts in other types of non-intact families. Controlling perceived family affluence, the difference between joint physical custody families and single
mother or mother–stepfather families became non-significant. Difficulties in communicating with parents were strongly associated with less life satisfaction but did not mediate the relation between family structure and life satisfaction. Children in the Nordic countries characterized by strong welfare systems reported significantly higher levels of life satisfaction in all living arrangements except in single father households. Differences in economic inequality between countries moderated the association between certain family structures, perceived family affluence and life satisfaction. 2010 The Author(s). Children & Society 2010 National Children’s Bureau and Blackwell Publishing Limited.

This study examines the association between family structure and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of adolescents in China. Methods. The participants included 612 adolescents (317 boys and 295 girls) from Shanghai with ages ranging from 10 to 16 years. Accelerometers were used to measure the duration of MVPA of adolescents, and questionnaires on family structure were completed by the parents of these adolescents. Results. Findings suggested that family structure significantly increased the likelihood of adolescents engaging in physical activity (PA) and explained 6% of MPVA variance. Adolescents living in single-parent households and step families were more physically active than those living in two-parent homes and with biological parents, respectively. However, adolescents residing with grandparents were less active than those living with neither grandparent. No significant difference was found in MVPA time between adolescents living with one sibling and those without siblings. Conclusion. Family environment may be considered in the development of PA interventions and policies, and adolescents living with their grandparents may be targeted in PA promotion.

Using recent data from the American Community Survey, the author investigated howthe dynamics of immigration influence ourunderstanding of the adoption–schooling relationship.The results suggest that implications of immigrant and adoption statuses could be understood within specific familial contexts. Thus, no statistical differences were found inthe outcomes of foreign-born adoptees in U.S. native families and their peers with immigrant parents. Instead, the most favorable patterns of schooling progress were found among U.S.-born adoptees living in immigrant families. Among immigrants, the analysis indicated similar patterns of achievement among Hispanic and White adoptees that are inconsistent with the predictions of segmented assimilation theory. However, there was a Hispanic disadvantage relative to Whites among immigrant children living with biological and stepparents. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for kinship selection and assimilation processes and the contention that alternative theoretical frameworks should be used to understand the implications of adoption status.

Using data from the birth cohort of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study ( n = 1,200) and the Mexican Family Life Survey (n = 1,013),this study investigated the living arrangements of Mexican-origin preschool children. The analysis examined children’s family circumstances in both sending and receiving countries, used longitudinal data to capture family transitions,and considered the intersection between nuclear and extended family structures. Between ages 0–1 and 4–5, Mexican children of immigrants experienced significantly more family instability than children in Mexico. They were more likely to transition from 2-parent to single-parent families and from extended family households to simple households. There were fewer differences between U.S. children with immigrant versus native parents, but the higher level of single parenthood among children of natives at ages 0–1 and the greater share making transitions from a 2-parent to a single-parent family suggest ongoing erosion of children’s family support across generations in the United States

This paper presents the results of a study carried out in Spain with 214 families with children aged between 3 and 10, comparing the quality of family context and the internal and external adjustment of children living in six different types of family structure: traditional, singleparent, stepfamilies, adoptive, same-sex parent and multiple-birth. Members of the research team interviewed the families in their homes and administered the assessment instruments (Development History, HOME inventory, Parenting Stress Index and Behavior Assessment System for Children). The results indicate that although some significant differences were observed between families (children living in same-sex parent families scored higher for internal and external adjustment, and those from stepfamilies scored lowest in these same measures), these differences disappeared when the effects of sociodemographic and contextual variables were statistically controlled in a covariance analysis. It can therefore be concluded that it was not family structure itself that was related to children’s adjustment, but rather the sociodemographic and contextual variables associated with it. Thus, all the family structures analysed in the study are capable of promoting positive child development and adjustment, providing they meet the necessary conditions, such as good-quality care and a stimulating environment free from conflict and stress.

This paper examines whether family structure and its transitions are associated with internalizing and externalizing psychiatric disorders among Puerto Ricanorigin children. It uses longitudinal data (three waves) from the Boricua Youth Study, which includes probability samples of children in the South Bronx (New York) and San Juan (Puerto Rico) (n = 2,142). We also examine factors which may explain how family structure and transitions may be related to child psychiatric disorders. Our results show that for both internalizing and externalizing disorders there were no significant differences between children of cohabiting (biological or step) parents or of single parents compared to children of married biological parents. In Puerto Rico only, transitioning once from a two-parent family to a single-parent family was related to child internalizing disorders. Family transitions were not associated with externalizing disorders at either site. Context may be an important factor shaping the risk that family dissolution is followed by an internalizing disorder among children.

This two-year autoethnographic action research study explores the processes a multiethnic/multiracial family uses to maintain their children’s heritage language of Spanish and the family’s multiculturalism. Data sources (including interviews and participant observations in the home and the dual-language school) specifically focus on the eldest child, Nelia, from her kindergarten and first-grade years where she attended a public dual-language program. The findings illuminate the integral link between the family’s ideology toward valuing bilingualism and the necessity of school support.

The authors were drawn to the media phenomenon created by Amy Chua’s book Battle Hymn o f the Tiger Mother about her parenting experiences raising two daughters. Chua’s parenting style is quite strict by US standards. The authors classify her style as Ethnic Minority, considered a subset of Authoritarian parenting style as compared to Authoritative style that is related to high academic achievement. Thispaper examines Asian parenting style and its relationship with students’ academic performance through the lens of western parenting style literature and Confucianism. Concerning the parenting style literature,a framework of variables is introduced that defines each style. We found these variables relate to Confucianism that places value on education and family dynamics. In this paper, three conclusions are reached: 1) the Ethnic Minority parenting style needs to be more prominent in the parenting style literature and more research needs to be conducted, particularly with Asian descendants. 2) Asian parenting style needs to be singled out and examined with an in-depth look at its relationship with children’s academic performance. 3) Confucianism with an emphasis on education and family dynamics, seems to foster the academic achievements of children. This impact needs to be further explored.

An essay is presented which discusses the role of Washington Territory's guardianship laws and practices in the formal and informal removal of indigenous children from their families. Particular focus is given to guardianship arrangements for the children of indigenous women. It is suggested that although guardianship often facilitated the exploitation and assimilation of indigenous and métis children, some Native families used it to maintain family connections that would otherwise not be recognized by territorial law.

Scholars believe that family ties extending out to previous generations, called kin support, may have allowed American Indians to withstand traumatic events. Although a series of traumatic and historical events disrupted the social structures of family life, kin support was found to be a major factor in the survival of American Indians. This study utilized the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to compare American Indians and whites ( n = 1227) in factors that impact kin support. While urban American Indian mothers were similar to whites in a number of elements, American Indian mothers that were not married, fell below the poverty threshold, were younger in age and co-resided with kin were more likely than their white counterparts to receive kin support. Implications for urban American Indian mothers suggest that maintaining their role as kin keeper may serve as an intrinsic reward and motivation for caring for kin. The role of a kin keeper may also promote the unique contribution in their families and the preservation of their culture. Given the minimal research in this area, results of this study can be used to guide future research and the development of intervention strategies for practitioners working with American Indian families

Demographic trends across Europe involve a decrease in fertility and mortality rates, and an increase in divorce and stepfamily formation. Life courses and living arrangements have become less standardized and the structure of families has changed. In this article, we examine to what extent contemporary family structure and composition resulting from demographic changes affect emotional exchange between children and their parents, both from adult child to parent and from parent to child. Because the general level of well-being has been shown to be lower in Eastern Europe, thereby potentially affecting emotional exchange within families, we focus our research on Eastern Europe. We use the 'conservation of resources theory' to derive hypotheses on how family structure may affect intergenerational emotional exchange. Family ties are assumed to be important resources of affection that people want to obtain and retain throughout their lives. Data from the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) are used to test our hypotheses. In general, our data offer more support for the idea that families are resilient than for the often heard assumption that families are in decline as a consequence of the changed family structure and composition.

This study investigated the association between childhood living arrangements and early family formation in Germany. Drawing on persisting sociocultural differences between East and West Germany, the author examined whether the association of childhood family structure and the transition to adulthood varies in different societal contexts. Data from the German Family Panel showed that children from nontraditional family structures experience important demographic transitions faster than children who were raised by both biological parents. The study revealed considerable context-specific differences that point to the long-term consequences of the postwar separation of East and West Germany. Family structure was less predictive for early family formation in the postcommunist East. In addition, this study adds to a growing body of literature indicating that even seemingly similar family-structure effects might bear very different implications-for example, for status attainment and the reproduction of inequality-depending on the sociocultural context.

This paper examines the association between the Great Recession and real assets among families with young children. Real assets such as homes and cars are key indicators of economic well-being that may be especially valuable to low-income families. Using longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,898), we investigate the association between the city unemployment rate and home and car ownership and how the relationship varies by family structure (married, cohabiting, and single parents) and by race/ethnicity (White, Black, and Hispanic mothers). Using mother fixed-effects models, we find that a one percentage point increase in the unemployment rate is associated with a -0.5 percentage point decline in the probability of home ownership and a -0.7 percentage point decline in the probability of car ownership. We also find that the recession was associated with lower levels of home ownership for cohabiting families and for Hispanic families, as well as lower car ownership among single mothers and among Black mothers, whereas no change was observed among married families or White households. Considering that homes and cars are the most important assets among middle and low-income households in the U.S., these results suggest that the rise in the unemployment rate during the Great Recession may have increased household asset inequality across family structures and race/ethnicities, limiting economic mobility, and exacerbating the cycle of poverty.

As family structure in the United States has become increasingly dynamic and complex, children have become more likely to reside with step- or half-siblings through a variety of pathways. When these pathways are accounted for, more than one in six U.S. children live with a step- or half-sibling at age 4. We use data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (N ~ 6,550) to assess the independent and joint influences of residing with a single parent or stepparent and with step- or half-siblings on children’s aggressive behavior at school entry. The influences of parents’ union status and complex sibship status on aggressive behavior are independent. Family resources partially explain the association between residing with an unpartnered mother and aggressive behavior regardless of sibship
status. However, the resource hypothesis does not explain the association of complex sibship with aggressive behavior.

To test the existence of the “magic moment” for parental marriage immediately post-birth and to inform policies that preferentially encourage biological over stepparent marriage, this study estimates the incidence and stability of maternal marriage for children born out of wedlock. Data came from the National Survey of Family Growth on 5,255 children born nonmaritally. By age 15, 29 % of children born nonmaritally experienced a biological-father marriage, and 36 % experienced a stepfather marriage. Stepfather marriages occurred much later in a child’s life—one-half occurred after the child turned age 7—and had one-third higher odds of dissolution. Children born to black mothers had qualitatively different maternal marriage experiences than children born to white or Hispanic mothers, with less biological-parent marriage and higher incidences of divorce. Findings support the existence of the magic moment and demonstrate that biological marriages were more enduring than stepfather marriages. Yet relatively few children born out of wedlock experienced stable, biological-parent marriages as envisioned by marriage promotion programs.

Current patterns of family formation in Australia mean that signify cant numbers of children are growing up in families include step-parents or step-siblings, or are headed by cohabiting rather than married parents. Further, these families may extend beyond the one household. It is this situation that is explored in this paper, with a focus on how fathering of young resident children differs when fathers have children living in another household. It is expected that when a father has children living in another household, his capacity to be involved with children living within the current couplefamily may be somewhat diminished. This paper explores to what extent this is true, by examining father involvement using Growing up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). Multivariate analyses of these data found that on some aspects of father involvement, those fathers with children living elsewhere did have diminished levels of involvement. Partnered fathers with children living elsewhere were less involved in some aspects of care of resident children. Children in these families had less time in the day when they were with their father without their mother also
present. Further, fathers who had children living elsewhere spent less time doing child care tasks. These findings were apparent in multivariate analyses, which also took account of a wide range of family, parental and child characteristics.

The article presents the study which examined the independent and additive influence of closeness with biological parents and stepparents on the levels of stress experienced by children during family transitions like the formation of stepfamily. In the study, the results of the Stepfamily Experiences Project in the U.S. were examined. Also cited are the benefit of parental relationships as sources of social support to children during stressful family transitions.

Coparenting refers to the support parents bring to each other when rearing a child. Supportive coparenting ensures cohesiveness of the family, which is linked with child outcomes. Little is known, however, about the coparental relationship in stepfamilies between the custodial parent, usually the mother, and the new partner, and how it compares to coparenting with the father. This study addressed mother-reported coparenting in stepfamilies and also compared it with that in first-marriage families. Three dimensions of coparenting were considered: family integrity, disparagement, and conflict. Mothers ( N = 300) completed questionnaires on their coparenting relationship with the father and with the partner, marital satisfaction, and attachment. Half the mothers were living in a stepfamily with a child between 5 and 13 years old from a previous marriage, and half in a first-marriage family. The main results show that (a) mothers promote family integrity in stepfamilies either with the partner, or with the father, but not with both; (b) the older the child, the less the mothers reported integrity with the father in both families, and the more they reported disparagement against the partner and conflict with the partner in stepfamilies; and (c) maternal marital satisfaction is linked with all dimensions of coparenting with the father in first-marriage families, but only with disparagement against the partner and conflict with the partner in stepfamilies. Overall, coparenting has similar characteristics in both types of families, but also presents differences that should be considered when working with parents who are committed to a new relationship.

Studies of coparents typically center on the relationship between parents who share a biological child; limited attention in research on community-based programs is given to the coparenting relationship within a stepfamily, even though clinicians note the challenges inherent in this relationship. We examined changes in coparenting agreement, parenting efficacy, and parental involvement for 96 stepparents following participation in a coparenting-focused community education program. A significant main effect of time was found for improvement in coparenting agreement, yet a significant time × gender interaction effect suggests that this is driven by improvements for stepmothers only. Parenting efficacy improved, regardless of gender, race, residence, or curriculum. A significant time × race interaction effect on change in parental involvement indicates increases in parental involvement for European American participants only. Finally, increases in coparenting agreement were associated with increases in parenting efficacy, and increases in parenting efficacy were associated with increases in parental involvement.

The present randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of Parent Management Training Oregon for foster parents with foster children (aged 4–12) with severe externalizing behavior problems in long-term foster care arrangements. Foster children’s behavior problems are challenging for foster parents and increase the risk of placement breakdown. There is little evidence for the effectiveness of established interventions to improve child and parent functioning in foster families. The goal of Parent Management Training Oregon, a relatively long and intensive (6–9 months, with weekly sessions) parent management training, is to reduce children’s problem behavior through improvement of parenting practices. We specifically investigated whether Parent Management Training Oregon is effective to reduce foster parenting stress. A significant effect of Parent Management Training Oregon, compared to Care as Usual was expected on reduced parenting stress improved parenting practices, and on reduced child behavior problems. Multi-informant (foster mothers, foster fathers, and teachers) data were used from 86 foster families (46 Parent Management Training Oregon, 40 Care as Usual) using a pre-posttest design. Multilevel analyses based on the intention to treat principle (retention rate 73 %) showed that Parent Management Training Oregon, compared to Care as Usual, reduced general levels of parenting stress as well as child related stress and parent-related stress (small to medium effect sizes). The clinical significance ofthis effect was, however, limited. Compared to a decrease in the Care as Usual group, Parent Management Training Oregon helped foster mothers to maintain parental warmth (small effect size). There were no other effects of Parent Management Training Oregon on self-reported parenting behaviors. Child behavior problems were reduced in both conditions, indicating no additive effects of Parent Management Training Oregon to Care as Usual on child functioning. The potential implication of reduced foster parenting stress for placement stability is discussed.

In the literature on work–family balance, role and boundary issues are commonly discussed in relation to parents who work outside of the home. Work and family are considered as two different spheres of activity, with different role identities and cultural meanings. For foster carers, however, in very significant ways, their family is their work and their work is their family – so roles are not so clearly separated and boundaries are not so clearly defined. This paper reviews theoretical approaches to the work–family interface and draws on qualitative data from 40 interviews with long-term foster carers. It provides an analysis of their accounts of their roles as professional carers and/or committed parents to explore how they manage different and potentially contradictory role identities. The study found that foster carers primarily identified as carers or as parents, but that some foster carers could move flexibly between these roles while others could not. For foster carers who could be flexible, the two roles enriched each other rather than causing stress and role conflict. Implications for supporting professional foster carers who can also meet the parenting needs of long-term foster children are discussed.

This paper analyses how social support enhances family resilience in kinship foster families by involving the families in an educational group programme. Sixty-two kinship foster families from Spain participated in the research. The data were collected before the programme (interviews) and after the programme (interviews and focus groups), and these were analysed by content analysis with the programme Atlas.ti. The results show that the factors that contribute most to the development of family resilience are as follows: (i) feeling able to look for solutions when facing problems; (ii) an increase of their network of formal support; (iii) being able to offer support to other foster families; and (iv) feeling that the support they give to parents’ foster children is socially recognized.

Foster care has a significant impact on biological children in the foster family (Thompson & McPherson, 2011). A review of the literature uncovered seven common themes describing this impact. Based on these themes and the curriculum developed in one state to train prospective foster parents, a new curriculum was developed. This new curriculum targeted youth whose parents were preparing to receive children into their homes. The purpose of this article is to present the development process of a unique, research-based tool that helps prepare families for receiving children.

he article presents a study which examines the characteristics of contact visits and children's perceptions of their emotional relationship with foster carers and biological parents. The study used the Affect Scale to rate the relationship quality of foster children with foster carers and birth parents. Results show the importance of improving contact visits using intervention strategies.

The main aim of this study was to identify the factors which are related to the greatest emotional and behavioral problems among children in the context of a foster family. Participants were 104 non-relative foster children and their respective foster families. A structural equation model was designed and tested in order to identify an explanatory model among the most relevant of the studied variables. The results showed that the model obtained offers a satisfactory structural fit and provides good explanatory power for children's problems. More specifically, the data reveal the important role played by affective relationships and parental discipline style in relation to children's problems within the foster family. Other factors involved were also analyzed. These results indicate that both parenting style and the kind of affect shown by foster parents towards the child are important predictors of the latter's problems. Criticism/rejection on the part of foster parents increases problems through its influence on both the foster carer's burden and the child's self-esteem. These results are useful in order to prepare and support foster carers.

A large number of children are currently living in Alternative Care. The relationship they establish with their temporary caregivers can play a significant role in their development. However, little has been published regarding attachment with temporary Caregivers. Objective: The aim of this review is to analyse the existing published studies regarding attachment styles in children living in alternative care (Children's Homes and Foster Care). The review analyses rates of attachment styles and associated factors (including characteristics of settings, children and caregivers) in both settings.

Families who foster offer essential care for children and youth when their own parents are unable to provide for their safety and well-being. Foster caregivers face many challenges including increased workload, emotional distress, and the difficulties associated with health and mental health problems that are more common in children in foster care. Despite these stressors, many families are able to sustain fostering while maintaining or enhancing functioning of their unit. This qualitative study applied an adaptational process model of family resilience that emerged in previous studies to examine narratives of persistent, long-term, and multiple fostering experiences. Data corroborated previous research in two ways. Family resilience was again described as a transactional process of coping and adaptation that evolves over time. This process was cultivated through the activation of 10 family strengths that are important in different ways, during varied phases.

Objective. The purpose of this article is to examine whether and how the residential racial diversity of transracially adopted children (i.e., nonwhite children adopted by white parents) varies from those of biological children in white monoracial families and biological children in mixed-race families.

his paper presents a review of the international research literature published since 2005 focusing specifically on sibling relationships in fostering and adoptive families. It presents an overview of the
current state of knowledge regarding sibling relationships of fostered and adopted children as well as gaps and limitations. The review concludes that while methodological advances are apparent in this body of work siblinghood is poorly conceptualised and there has been inadequate attention to the perspectives of children. The paper goes on to suggest that one possible source of insight comes from recent work undertaken within social anthropology and sociology and the application of this theoretical and methodological approach to the study of siblinghood in out-of-home care is considered.

This study evaluated the new online Emotional Attachment and Emotional Availability (EA2) Intervention for use with adoptive families in enhancing parent–child EA, parental perceptions of EA, child attachment behaviors, parent–child emotional attachment, and reducing parent-reported child behavioral problems and parenting-related stress. Participants in this study were adoptive parents and their adopted children ages 1.5 to 5 years old (N = 15 dyads). Participants were placed in an immediate intervention group (IG) or a delayed intervention group (DG) that would receive the 6-week EA2 Tele-Intervention after the IG. Results revealed significant differences in the IG in child behavioral problems, parent–child EA, parental perceptions of EA, and parent–child emotional attachment, improvements not seen in the DG. Analysis of effects of the DG after receiving the EA2 Tele-Intervention revealed significant differences over time also in most of these qualities.

Contemporary child adoption in the UK and USA has been conceptualised as an extended kinship network of adopted children, birth relatives and adopters (Reitz and Watson, 1992; Grotevant and McRoy, 1998). This contrasts sharply with the traditional model of adoption as a form of family substitution. Yet, such a reconceptualisation raises many questions about the meaning of kinship for those involved. This paper draws on data from a series of biographical interviews with twenty-two parents who adopted children within the UK over a twenty-four-year period in order to explore post adoption ‘family relationships’ from the perspective of adoptive parents. It develops an analysis of definitions of ‘kinship’ created by adoptive parents in order to shape family relationships following adoption, particularly the processes through
which birth relatives are rendered marginal or integral to adoptive family life. The relevance of current adoption policy and professional practices to these processes are explored.

Using recent data from the American Community Survey, the author investigated howthe dynamics of immigration influence ourunderstanding of the adoption–schooling relationship.The results suggest that implications of immigrant and adoption statuses could be understood within specific familial contexts. Thus, no statistical differences were found inthe outcomes of foreign-born adoptees in U.S. native families and their peers with immigrant parents. Instead, the most favorable patterns of schooling progress were found among U.S.-born adoptees living in immigrant families. Among immigrants, the analysis indicated similar patterns of achievement among Hispanic and White adoptees that are inconsistent with the predictions of segmented assimilation theory. However, there was a Hispanic disadvantage relative to Whites among immigrant children living with biological and stepparents. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for kinship selection and assimilation processes and the contention that alternative theoretical frameworks should be used to understand the implications of adoption status.

Contact plans for children in adoption and long-term foster care are decided on a case-by-case basis, as directed by the paramountcy principle in the Children Act (1989). The idea that birth family contact helps children resolve issues around attachment, separation and loss, and identity is prevalent in social work practice. However, evidence revealing the detrimental impact of contact has been used to support increasingly restrictive legislation. The current review aims to provide policy-makers and social workers with a resource to guide decisions in permanency planning by evaluating this evidence and reported outcomes for children. The research question and exclusion/inclusion criteria were formulated and used to develop a search strategy. Of the 412 potential titles returned, 11 were of sufficient quality to include in the thematic synthesis. Results were mixed and significantly influenced by moderator variables such as the pre-existing relationship between children and their birth families. Outcomes were particularly positive when there was a collaborative approach between birth families and adoptive parents or foster carers. Outcomes tended to be poorest for children who had ongoing contact with maltreating birth parents. The review findings support current policy and previous research in recommending a more reflexive approach to assessing and planning contact.

Adoption involves the legal transfer of parental rights and responsibilities from a child's birth parents to adults who will raise the child (Reitz & Watson, 1992). Research related to adoption has expanded over the past 10 years and has incorporated more focus on implications for practice and public policy. This expansion has reflected increased awareness of the lived experience of adopted individuals, in addition to that of adoptive families and birth or first parents and families, collectively known as the adoption kinship network (Grotevant & McRoy, 1998). Trends discussed included research and social trends or movements (2007-2017) since the publication of the final article in a series of articles in the psychological literature related to adoption in The Counseling Psychologist (Baden & Wiley, 2007; Lee, 2003; O'Brien & Zamostny, 2003; Wiley & Baden, 2005; Zamostny, O'Brien, Baden, & Wiley, 2003; Zamostny, Wiley, O'Brien, Lee, & Baden, 2003). This article summarizes the social trends and research related to adoption over the last 10 years, including longitudinal and meta-analytic studies, increased research and conceptualization of ethnic and racial identity development, research on microaggressions, and research on diverse adoptive families, including those with gay and lesbian parents. Social trends included increased knowledge related to Internet accessibility, genetic information, continued focus on openness, and viewing adoption through a more critical lens. Implications are discussed for the development of programs that enhance competence of mental health professionals and adoption professionals in adoption-competent practice.

or the propensity to approach and engage strangers. There is little longitudinal research examining changes in DSE after adoption, or methods of identifying children with persistent behaviors. Methods: DSE was assessed observationally four times during the first 2 years postadoption in PI children 16–36 months at adoption (n = 68) relative to same-age nonadopted children (n = 52). At age 5, a validated interview determined which PI children met criteria for Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED). Results: DSE trajectories initially increased and then stabilized. PIs had higher DSE levels initially and a steeper increase rate than NAs. When separated into physical and nonphysical DSE components, group differences arose in initial physical DSE and the rate of change of nonphysical DSE. DSE rate of increase predicted DSED diagnosis, as did longer institutional duration and poorer institutional care. Conclusions: The rate of increase in DSE postadoption, rather than the level observed at adoption, is predictive of disordered social engagement by age 5 years.

Parent–child discrepancies pervade the family literature; they appear in reports of relationship dynamics (e.g., conflict; Laursen et al. 1998), parent and child behaviors (e.g., monitoring; De Los Reyes et al. 2010), andindividual family members’ beliefs (e.g.,parental legitimate authority; Smetana 2011). Discrepancies are developmentally normative (Steinberg 2001) but also may be indicators of relationship and adjustment problems for teens (Ohannessian 2012). Because of this variation, it is important to consider the extent to which parent–childdiscrepancies are a function of both the dyad and the family construct considered. The present study contributed to our understanding of informant discrepancies in family relationships by considering the patterning, consistency, and correlates of mother–adolescent discrepancies across three family constructs that vary in their objectivity. Using person-centered analyses, discrepancies in adolescents’ and mothers’ ratings of parents’ right to know about teens’ activities, mothers’ knowledge of them, and positive mother–adolescents relationships were examined in 167 middle class, primarily European American mother–adolescent dyads (M teen age = 15.68 years, SD = .64, 53 % female). Each construct was best described by three profiles, one where adolescents’ standardized ratings were consistently higher than mothers’, one showing the reverse,and one revealing little disagreement. Adolescent-reported problem behavior (but not depression), behavioral and psychological control, and mothers’ well-being significantly predicted profile membership. Most dyads maintained consistent membership in a discrepancy profile across at least two family constructs. Results contribute to understanding the different sources of discrepancies in views of the family.

Marriage promotion policy agendas have focused research attention on coparenting relationships, but little is known about coparenting among teen parents. Using qualitative interviews with 76 teen mothers and fathers supplemented with site observations at a school and clinic, the authors investigated coparenting relationships and those relationships’ embeddedness in extended families and social institutions. They identified prevalent coparenting trajectories and analyzed individual-, interaction-, and institutional-level influences on coparenting. Coparenting trajectories diverged depending on whether the couple stayed together and assumed traditionally gendered parenting roles. Participants perceived that coparenting relationships strongly shaped their current and future socioeconomic, emotional, and practical circumstances and their success at “being there” for their child. Extended families, institutions, and social programs often pushed teen parents apart, although many participants felt they needed a functional relationship with the other parent. Coparenting relationships, considered jointly with extended families and social institutions, are fundamental for understanding teen parenthood and shaping effective social policies.

This community pilot study was designed to evaluate a small group intervention, Right From The Start (RFTS), in terms of the benefits it provides to adolescent mothers specifically. The effectiveness of the programme was examined in the areas of maternal sensitivity, parenting confidence, parenting stress, and postnatal depression. RFTS has been found as effective as home-visiting in improving maternal sensitivity among adult mothers. This research aimed to study whether similar results could be obtained in a population of adolescent mothers. Eleven adolescent mothers participated in this group intervention, and four of them completed it entirely. Mothers were recruited through an early parenting centre where they were videotaped during a five-minute feeding session. Maternal sensitivity was coded pre and post intervention using the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training Parent Child Interaction scale. In addition, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Parenting Stress Index, and the Toddler Care Questionnaire were used. In a paired-samples, two-tailed t-test, overall maternal sensitivity significantly improved between pre and post group intervention (p = 0.048). Maternal depression, stress, and parental confidence did not show significant improvements post intervention. In conclusion, RFTS may be helpful to even very young mothers within some domains of parenting. Clinical implications and limitations are discussed. Further research is required before conclusions about the effectiveness of this programme can be generalised.

This study examines the puzzle of disparities experienced by U.S. teen parents’ young children, whose health and development increasingly lag behind those of peers while their parents are simultaneously experiencing socioeconomic improvements. Using the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (2001–2007; N ≈ 8,600), we assess four dynamic patterns in socioeconomic resources that might account for these growing developmental and health disparities throughout early childhood and then test them in multilevel growth curve models. Persistently low socioeconomic resources constituted the strongest explanation, given that consistently low income, maternal education, and assets fully or partially account for growth in cognitive, behavioral, and health disparities experienced by teen parents’ children from infancy through kindergarten. That is, although teen parents gained socioeconomic resources over time, those resources remained relatively low, and the duration of exposure to limited resources explains observed growing disparities. Results suggest that policy interventions addressing the time dynamics of low socioeconomic resources in a household, in terms of both duration and developmental timing, are promising for reducing disparities experienced by teen parents’ children.

Our aim was to estimate the effects of Healthy Families Massachusetts, a statewide home visiting program serving first-time adolescent parents, on parenting, child development, educational attainment, family planning, and maternal health and well-being. Methods. We used a randomized controlled trial design to randomly assign the 704 participants to a group receiving home visiting services or a control group. Between 2008 and 2012, telephone and in-person interviews were conducted and administrative data obtained at 12 and 24months after enrollment. Intention-to-treat analyses compared group differences across 5 outcome domains: parenting, child health and development, educational and economic achievement, family planning, and parental health and well-being. Results. The home visiting program had a positive influence on parenting stress, college attendance, condom use, intimate partner violence, and engagement in risky behaviors. No negative findings were observed. Conclusions. A paraprofessional home visiting program specifically targeting young mothers appears effective in domains of particular salience to young parents and their infants and toddlers. Expanding participation in the program appears a worthy goal for program administrators and policymakers

The purpose of the study was to explore, in depth, the impact teen pregnancy has on
education attainment for girls 13-19 years of age across racial/ethnicity and
socioeconomic status. Eight girls from African American/Black and Hispanic/Latino
ethnic backgrounds participated in the study. Critical race theoretical framework was
utilized for the study. Results identified six themes: sex education, social stigma and
psychological stress about being a pregnant or parenting teen girl, teen parenthood,
impacts of male relationships, support systems, and accountability and responsibility.
Strategies for school counselors working with pregnant and parenting teen girls are
provided.

dentity achievement has been described as a critical developmental task of adolescence, but has seldom been discussed in the context of adolescent parenthood. Little is known about how teen mothers negotiate identity development, nor about the role that the latter plays in influencing the teen parenting context, for example parenting quality and experienced stress. In the present study, data were collected from 42 adolescent mothers (younger than 20 years at childbirth), and 53 adult mothers (older than 24 years at childbirth). Identity achievement and perceived stress were assessed through self-report inventory, and parenting quality was assessed with behavioural observation of dyadic sensitivity. Results suggest that teen mothers follow a unique developmental sequence. Identity commitment, a component of identity achievement, emerged as a protective mechanism for young mothers. Specifically, identity commitment was found to mediate the relationship between maternal age and dyadic sensitivity, and moderate the relationship between perceived stress and dyadic sensitivity. Overall, findings from this study suggest that identity development may help calibrate stress and support adaptation to parenting among teen mothers, and could be another noteworthy factor in the development of healthy attachment relationships between adolescent caregivers and their infants.

This study examined the association between perceived family economic stress, quality of father-son relationships, and depressive symptoms among African American adolescent fathers. Data were collected during pregnancy from 65 African American adolescents who were first-time fathers, ages 14-19. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that higher paternal relationship satisfaction was associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adolescent fathers. Additionally, depressive symptoms were higher among adolescent fathers who reported experiencing higher levels of conflict with their fathers. Further, paternal conflict moderated the effect of perceived family economic stress on depressive symptoms. That is, among adolescent fathers experiencing low levels of conflict with their fathers, high perceived family economic stress was associated with more depressive symptoms. Study findings suggest that the risk for depressive symptoms is highest among adolescent fathers experiencing low family economic stress and highly conflictual relations with their fathers. These results highlight the complexities of paternal relationships and perceived economic stressors on depressive symptoms during pregnancy for African American adolescent fathers. The importance of expanding research on influential familial relationships and economic stressors on adolescent African American fathers is discussed.